Indian Saints were having rich knowledge
Tuesday, April 27, 2004
WOMEN AND BRAHMACHARYA
Is celibacy important to women also ?An aspirant writes: "I would like to know whether the same theory regarding the formation of Veerya and loss of the same holds good in the case of women also. Are they actually affected to the same extent as men?" The question is an important and pertinent one. Yes, indulgence in the sexual act is exhausting to the female system and a drain upon the vitality as in man. The nervous strain it imposes on the system is very great indeed.
The female gonads, the ovaries corresponding to the testes in the males, produce, develop and mature precious, vital force like semen. This is the ovum. Though the woman does not actually lose this out of her body, as in the case of semen in man, yet, due to the sexual act, it leaves the ovaries and is taken up in the process of conception to form the embryo. And one knows only too well what a strain and drain on strength child-bearing is to a woman. Repeated depletion of this force and the strain of childbirth makes wrecks of healthy ladies, and works havoc with their strength, beauty and grace as well as their youth and mental power. Eyes lose the lustre and sparkle that are indicative of the inner forces.
The intense sensuous excitement of the act shatters the nervous system and causes debility too. Their system being more delicate and high-strung, females are often more affected than men.
Women should preserve their precious vital force. The ovum and the hormones secreted by the ovaries are very essential for the maximum physical and mental well-being of women.
Women also should observe the vow of celibacy. They also can remain as Naishthic Brahmacharinis like Mirabai and devote themselves to the service and devotion of God. Or they can do Brahma-Vichara like Gargi and Sulabha. They will be styled as Brahma-Vicharinis, enquirers of Brahman, if they adopt this path.
Grihastha-Dharminis or householders among women should observe Pativrata-Dharma or the vow of chastity and should keep Savitri, Anasuya, as their ideal. They should see Lord Krishna in their husbands and realize God, like Laila in Majnu. They also can practice all the Kriyas such as Asanas and Pranayamas. They should do vigorous Sankirtan, Japa and prayer daily in their houses. Through Bhakti, they can easily destroy passion, because by nature they are devotional.
Many women of yore had done miraculous deeds and shown to the world the power of chastity. Nalayini, by the power of chastity, stopped the rising of the sun to save her husbands’s life. Anasuya turned the Trimurtis—Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesvara—into babies when they wanted Nirvana Bhiksha. It is through the power of chastity only that she was able to turn the great deities into babies. Savitri brought back the life of Satyavan, her husband, from the noose of Yama, by her chastity. Such is the power of chastity or Brahmacharya. Women who lead an ideal householder’s life with chastity can also become like Anasuya, Nalayini or Savitri.
Brahmacharinis—ancient and modern
In olden days, there were Brahmacharinis in India. They were Brahmavadinis; they discoursed on Brahman. They did not wish to lead the life of Grihastha-Dharminis devoted to a householder’s duties. They served the Rishis and sages in their hermitages and did Brahma-Vichara or enquiry of Brahman. King Janasruti placed his daughter at the service of Rishi Raikva. You will find this in the Chhandogya Upanishad.
Sulabha was a very learned lady. She was born in a royal family. She was a Brahmacharini. She was instructed in the religion of emancipation. She observed the practice of asceticism. She was firm in the practices that belonged to the mode of life she led. She was steady in her vows. She never uttered a word without reflecting on its propriety. She was a Yogini. She led the life of a Sannyasini. She appeared before Janaka in his court and had a great discussion with him on Brahma-Vidya or the Science of the Self.
Gargi was also a Brahmacharini. She also was a highly cultured lady. She also had a lengthy discussion with Yajnavalkya on Brahma-Vidya. The dialogue between them comes in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
In Europe also there were many women who were celibate and who dedicated their lives entirely to severe austerity, prayer and meditation. They had their own hermitages. In India, even at the present moment, there are educated women who lead the life of Brahmacharinis. They do not wish to marry. This is due to the force of good Samskaras of previous births. They give education to the girls in schools. They give free tuition privately to poor girls and train them in sewing and other household works. They study religious books and practice meditation in the morning and in the evening. They do Kirtan. They keep a daily spiritual diary. They conduct Satsanga classes and Kirtan among women. They train girls in the practice of Asanas and Pranayama. They give discourses on the Gita and the Upanishads. They deliver lectures on the religious subjects in English, Sanskrit and Hindi. During holidays and on important occasions, they hold religious conferences for ladies on a grand scale for mass spiritual awakening.
Sometimes they visit nearby villages and distribute medicines freely to the poor. They are equipped with the knowledge of first-aid, homoeopathy, allopathy and the bio-chemical system of medicine. They are trained in nursing the sick. There is a highly educated Brahmacharini, who is well-versed in Sanskrit, English and Hindi, who is the head of an institution for girls. She maintains a free private school also for poor girls at her own expense. This is a very noble service indeed.
Such girls and women are really a blessing to India. They lead a life of purity and self-sacrifice. They enjoy bliss, prosperity and renown here and will also attain the immortal abode of supreme peace hereafter. India is in need of more Brahmacharinis of this description who can dedicate their lives to service, meditation and prayer.
There was a Maharani in the erstwhile United Provinces who wore simple dress, ate simple food, served Sadhus and poor people and always lived amongst Sannyasins. She had a sound knowledge of the scriptures and she did regular meditation and prayer. She observed Mouna or the vow of silence for months together and spent some time in seclusion and ruled her state also.
There is an educated woman who is an M.B.B.S. Her husband is holding a good position. She treats the patients freely. She does not charge any fees for visiting. She does very good service to the society. She is not a job hunter. She is free from greed. She does medical service for the purification of her heart. She regards medical service of the poor people as worship of God. She looks after the house and serves her husband. She studies religious books and spends sometime in meditation, worship and prayer. She is an ideal woman who leads a glorious and pious life.
Loose life is not freedom
The world is in dire need of such ideal women. I wish that the world may abound with such glorious women. I do not condemn women. I do not oppose giving them education and freedom. I have the highest veneration for women. I adore them as Devis or goddesses. But, I am not in favour of such freedom for women as will ruin them. I am in favour of such education and culture as will make them - immortal and glorious, as will make them ideal women like Sulabha, Mira and Maitreyi, like Savitri and Damayanti. This is what I want. This is what everybody would like.
Loose life is not perfect freedom. Some women of India have ruined themselves by taking advantage of this false freedom. There is no limit to the freedom, which the so-called educated woman enjoys now. This freedom has caused many homes to be wrecked. It has created disorders in society. It has brought shame on many respectable families. The girls, in their insatiable craving for freedom, have overstepped the limit and lost that priceless possession which the women of the past could keep untarnished.
By mixing with men freely, woman loses her dignity, modesty, feminine grace, and the sanctity of her person and character. A woman who mixes freely with men cannot preserve her chastity for long. There can be, and there have been, exceptions. A woman who mixes with men freely in public life and yet remains pure must be certainly superhuman. An ordinary woman with her natural passion will soon succumb. Human nature will fulfil itself.
What is there in a woman’s life if her purity is lost? She is only a living corpse if there is no purity, although she may be rolling in wealth and moving in high circles in society. Promiscuous mixing will lead to disastrous results. Even Rishis and Yogins who are clad in rags, who live on roots in seclusion, will be pulled down by the dark forces of nature if they are careless. Then what to speak of women who eat daily dainties and sweetmeats, who are clad in perfumed velvet and silk with lace borders, who are given to too much mixing, who do not lead a life of self-control, who have no religious training and discipline, who have no idea of the inner life and the religion of emancipation? O wise reader! I leave this for your own consideration, reflection, cogitation and deliberation.
Women should not do anything that can bring dishonour or infamy on them and their family, and a blot on their character. Without character, a man or a woman is considered as dead while living. Women should be very careful and cautious when they move in society. They should avoid too much talking, too much mixing, guffaw and giggling. They should always walk in a dignified manner and not with the swinging of the hips. They should never look at men with a flitting gesture. Clothes should not be too tight or revealing. Abandon make-up.
A call to spiritual life
O Devis! Do not waste your lives in fashion and passion. Open your eyes. Walk in the path of righteousness. Preserve your Pativrata Dharma. See Divinity in your husband. Study the Gita, the Upanishads, Bhagavata and Ramayana. Become good Grihastha-Dharminis and Brahma-Vicharinis. Bring forth many Gourangas. The destiny of the world is entirely in your hands. You are holding the master-key of the world. Open the door of Elysian bliss. Bring Vaikuntha in your home. Train your children in the spiritual path. Sow the spiritual seed when they are young.
O Devis of the world! Should you not strive for the higher life, the grand, the sublime, the only real life in the Soul? Is it sufficient if you are satisfied with the petty material necessities of life on earth? Do you remember what Maitreyi said to Yajnavalkya? "What shall I do with the wealth of this whole world if thereby I would not become immortal?" said she to her husband. How many ladies of this world will be bold enough to assert this wise saying of the Upanishadic ideal of a woman?
To chain themselves with the bondage of Samsara is not the birthright of the mothers and sisters of the world. To get stuck up in family, children and relatives is not the ideal of courageous and discriminative women. Every mother of the world should realize her responsibility to awaken herself, her children, her family and her husband, to the true light, and splendour of spiritual life. What a glorious mother was Madalasa! Did she ask her children to study up to the post-graduate examination, and then seek for some employment? "Suddhosi, Buddhosi, Niranjanosi, Samsara Maya Parivarjitosi—You are pure, you are consciousness, you are taintless, you are devoid of the Maya of Samsara"—such was the Advaitic instruction which Madalasa gave to her children when she rocked them in the cradle. How many mothers of the present-day world have got the fortune to teach their children such profound knowledge? On the other hand, the present-day mothers would try to crush the spiritual tendency of their children even if it is found in them in a microscopic state! What a sad and pitiable condition! Wake up, O mothers, sisters! Wake up from your deep sleep. Recognise your responsibility. Spiritualise yourselves. Spiritualise your children. Spiritualise even your husbands, for you are the makers of the family! Remember how Chudala illumined her husband. You are the makers of the nations! You are the builders of the world! Therefore, spiritualise yourselves. Assert in yourselves the spirit of Sulabha, Maitreyi, Gargi. Do not be cowardly. Come out of your fleshy homes—the homes of delusion, the homes of vanity!
Be you all real Sannyasinis and bring real glory, real greatness, for that is real boldness and courage, that is real wisdom and understanding. A woman is not a woman if she is devoid of spiritual fire in her, if she is ignorant of a higher life in the Soul. A woman’s duty is not merely family; her duty is also to transcend the family. Her duty does not lie in sans, bangles, jackets, powders and scents. Her duty does not lie in getting employment for her children. Her duty is also concerned with the Self, the Atman, the Brahman. Such a woman is a real symbol of God. She is to be adored, she is to be worshipped!
Is celibacy important to women also ?An aspirant writes: "I would like to know whether the same theory regarding the formation of Veerya and loss of the same holds good in the case of women also. Are they actually affected to the same extent as men?" The question is an important and pertinent one. Yes, indulgence in the sexual act is exhausting to the female system and a drain upon the vitality as in man. The nervous strain it imposes on the system is very great indeed.
The female gonads, the ovaries corresponding to the testes in the males, produce, develop and mature precious, vital force like semen. This is the ovum. Though the woman does not actually lose this out of her body, as in the case of semen in man, yet, due to the sexual act, it leaves the ovaries and is taken up in the process of conception to form the embryo. And one knows only too well what a strain and drain on strength child-bearing is to a woman. Repeated depletion of this force and the strain of childbirth makes wrecks of healthy ladies, and works havoc with their strength, beauty and grace as well as their youth and mental power. Eyes lose the lustre and sparkle that are indicative of the inner forces.
The intense sensuous excitement of the act shatters the nervous system and causes debility too. Their system being more delicate and high-strung, females are often more affected than men.
Women should preserve their precious vital force. The ovum and the hormones secreted by the ovaries are very essential for the maximum physical and mental well-being of women.
Women also should observe the vow of celibacy. They also can remain as Naishthic Brahmacharinis like Mirabai and devote themselves to the service and devotion of God. Or they can do Brahma-Vichara like Gargi and Sulabha. They will be styled as Brahma-Vicharinis, enquirers of Brahman, if they adopt this path.
Grihastha-Dharminis or householders among women should observe Pativrata-Dharma or the vow of chastity and should keep Savitri, Anasuya, as their ideal. They should see Lord Krishna in their husbands and realize God, like Laila in Majnu. They also can practice all the Kriyas such as Asanas and Pranayamas. They should do vigorous Sankirtan, Japa and prayer daily in their houses. Through Bhakti, they can easily destroy passion, because by nature they are devotional.
Many women of yore had done miraculous deeds and shown to the world the power of chastity. Nalayini, by the power of chastity, stopped the rising of the sun to save her husbands’s life. Anasuya turned the Trimurtis—Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesvara—into babies when they wanted Nirvana Bhiksha. It is through the power of chastity only that she was able to turn the great deities into babies. Savitri brought back the life of Satyavan, her husband, from the noose of Yama, by her chastity. Such is the power of chastity or Brahmacharya. Women who lead an ideal householder’s life with chastity can also become like Anasuya, Nalayini or Savitri.
Brahmacharinis—ancient and modern
In olden days, there were Brahmacharinis in India. They were Brahmavadinis; they discoursed on Brahman. They did not wish to lead the life of Grihastha-Dharminis devoted to a householder’s duties. They served the Rishis and sages in their hermitages and did Brahma-Vichara or enquiry of Brahman. King Janasruti placed his daughter at the service of Rishi Raikva. You will find this in the Chhandogya Upanishad.
Sulabha was a very learned lady. She was born in a royal family. She was a Brahmacharini. She was instructed in the religion of emancipation. She observed the practice of asceticism. She was firm in the practices that belonged to the mode of life she led. She was steady in her vows. She never uttered a word without reflecting on its propriety. She was a Yogini. She led the life of a Sannyasini. She appeared before Janaka in his court and had a great discussion with him on Brahma-Vidya or the Science of the Self.
Gargi was also a Brahmacharini. She also was a highly cultured lady. She also had a lengthy discussion with Yajnavalkya on Brahma-Vidya. The dialogue between them comes in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
In Europe also there were many women who were celibate and who dedicated their lives entirely to severe austerity, prayer and meditation. They had their own hermitages. In India, even at the present moment, there are educated women who lead the life of Brahmacharinis. They do not wish to marry. This is due to the force of good Samskaras of previous births. They give education to the girls in schools. They give free tuition privately to poor girls and train them in sewing and other household works. They study religious books and practice meditation in the morning and in the evening. They do Kirtan. They keep a daily spiritual diary. They conduct Satsanga classes and Kirtan among women. They train girls in the practice of Asanas and Pranayama. They give discourses on the Gita and the Upanishads. They deliver lectures on the religious subjects in English, Sanskrit and Hindi. During holidays and on important occasions, they hold religious conferences for ladies on a grand scale for mass spiritual awakening.
Sometimes they visit nearby villages and distribute medicines freely to the poor. They are equipped with the knowledge of first-aid, homoeopathy, allopathy and the bio-chemical system of medicine. They are trained in nursing the sick. There is a highly educated Brahmacharini, who is well-versed in Sanskrit, English and Hindi, who is the head of an institution for girls. She maintains a free private school also for poor girls at her own expense. This is a very noble service indeed.
Such girls and women are really a blessing to India. They lead a life of purity and self-sacrifice. They enjoy bliss, prosperity and renown here and will also attain the immortal abode of supreme peace hereafter. India is in need of more Brahmacharinis of this description who can dedicate their lives to service, meditation and prayer.
There was a Maharani in the erstwhile United Provinces who wore simple dress, ate simple food, served Sadhus and poor people and always lived amongst Sannyasins. She had a sound knowledge of the scriptures and she did regular meditation and prayer. She observed Mouna or the vow of silence for months together and spent some time in seclusion and ruled her state also.
There is an educated woman who is an M.B.B.S. Her husband is holding a good position. She treats the patients freely. She does not charge any fees for visiting. She does very good service to the society. She is not a job hunter. She is free from greed. She does medical service for the purification of her heart. She regards medical service of the poor people as worship of God. She looks after the house and serves her husband. She studies religious books and spends sometime in meditation, worship and prayer. She is an ideal woman who leads a glorious and pious life.
Loose life is not freedom
The world is in dire need of such ideal women. I wish that the world may abound with such glorious women. I do not condemn women. I do not oppose giving them education and freedom. I have the highest veneration for women. I adore them as Devis or goddesses. But, I am not in favour of such freedom for women as will ruin them. I am in favour of such education and culture as will make them - immortal and glorious, as will make them ideal women like Sulabha, Mira and Maitreyi, like Savitri and Damayanti. This is what I want. This is what everybody would like.
Loose life is not perfect freedom. Some women of India have ruined themselves by taking advantage of this false freedom. There is no limit to the freedom, which the so-called educated woman enjoys now. This freedom has caused many homes to be wrecked. It has created disorders in society. It has brought shame on many respectable families. The girls, in their insatiable craving for freedom, have overstepped the limit and lost that priceless possession which the women of the past could keep untarnished.
By mixing with men freely, woman loses her dignity, modesty, feminine grace, and the sanctity of her person and character. A woman who mixes freely with men cannot preserve her chastity for long. There can be, and there have been, exceptions. A woman who mixes with men freely in public life and yet remains pure must be certainly superhuman. An ordinary woman with her natural passion will soon succumb. Human nature will fulfil itself.
What is there in a woman’s life if her purity is lost? She is only a living corpse if there is no purity, although she may be rolling in wealth and moving in high circles in society. Promiscuous mixing will lead to disastrous results. Even Rishis and Yogins who are clad in rags, who live on roots in seclusion, will be pulled down by the dark forces of nature if they are careless. Then what to speak of women who eat daily dainties and sweetmeats, who are clad in perfumed velvet and silk with lace borders, who are given to too much mixing, who do not lead a life of self-control, who have no religious training and discipline, who have no idea of the inner life and the religion of emancipation? O wise reader! I leave this for your own consideration, reflection, cogitation and deliberation.
Women should not do anything that can bring dishonour or infamy on them and their family, and a blot on their character. Without character, a man or a woman is considered as dead while living. Women should be very careful and cautious when they move in society. They should avoid too much talking, too much mixing, guffaw and giggling. They should always walk in a dignified manner and not with the swinging of the hips. They should never look at men with a flitting gesture. Clothes should not be too tight or revealing. Abandon make-up.
A call to spiritual life
O Devis! Do not waste your lives in fashion and passion. Open your eyes. Walk in the path of righteousness. Preserve your Pativrata Dharma. See Divinity in your husband. Study the Gita, the Upanishads, Bhagavata and Ramayana. Become good Grihastha-Dharminis and Brahma-Vicharinis. Bring forth many Gourangas. The destiny of the world is entirely in your hands. You are holding the master-key of the world. Open the door of Elysian bliss. Bring Vaikuntha in your home. Train your children in the spiritual path. Sow the spiritual seed when they are young.
O Devis of the world! Should you not strive for the higher life, the grand, the sublime, the only real life in the Soul? Is it sufficient if you are satisfied with the petty material necessities of life on earth? Do you remember what Maitreyi said to Yajnavalkya? "What shall I do with the wealth of this whole world if thereby I would not become immortal?" said she to her husband. How many ladies of this world will be bold enough to assert this wise saying of the Upanishadic ideal of a woman?
To chain themselves with the bondage of Samsara is not the birthright of the mothers and sisters of the world. To get stuck up in family, children and relatives is not the ideal of courageous and discriminative women. Every mother of the world should realize her responsibility to awaken herself, her children, her family and her husband, to the true light, and splendour of spiritual life. What a glorious mother was Madalasa! Did she ask her children to study up to the post-graduate examination, and then seek for some employment? "Suddhosi, Buddhosi, Niranjanosi, Samsara Maya Parivarjitosi—You are pure, you are consciousness, you are taintless, you are devoid of the Maya of Samsara"—such was the Advaitic instruction which Madalasa gave to her children when she rocked them in the cradle. How many mothers of the present-day world have got the fortune to teach their children such profound knowledge? On the other hand, the present-day mothers would try to crush the spiritual tendency of their children even if it is found in them in a microscopic state! What a sad and pitiable condition! Wake up, O mothers, sisters! Wake up from your deep sleep. Recognise your responsibility. Spiritualise yourselves. Spiritualise your children. Spiritualise even your husbands, for you are the makers of the family! Remember how Chudala illumined her husband. You are the makers of the nations! You are the builders of the world! Therefore, spiritualise yourselves. Assert in yourselves the spirit of Sulabha, Maitreyi, Gargi. Do not be cowardly. Come out of your fleshy homes—the homes of delusion, the homes of vanity!
Be you all real Sannyasinis and bring real glory, real greatness, for that is real boldness and courage, that is real wisdom and understanding. A woman is not a woman if she is devoid of spiritual fire in her, if she is ignorant of a higher life in the Soul. A woman’s duty is not merely family; her duty is also to transcend the family. Her duty does not lie in sans, bangles, jackets, powders and scents. Her duty does not lie in getting employment for her children. Her duty is also concerned with the Self, the Atman, the Brahman. Such a woman is a real symbol of God. She is to be adored, she is to be worshipped!
The entries in the chronology cover seven major themes in the prehistory and history of religion:
(1) Religion in the prehistoric world; that is, religions about which we know through the study of the archaeological record. Coverage of these is slight compared to coverage of religion in the historic period, as information is limited by the absence of written records and the need to base interpretations on a less than full archaeological record.
(2) Religion in the ancient world, with an emphasis on the religions of major civilizations in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Africa, India, Greece, Rome, and the Americas. Information about these religions comes from both the archaeological and often written records.
(3) Major world religions; religions whose followers are widely distributed throughout the world and/or religions that have influenced other religions in significant ways. The world religions covered here are Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism (Baptist, Churches of God, Episcopalian, Anglican, Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity, Pentecostal, Lutheran, Methodist, Congregational, Presbyterian, and the Salvation Army), Eastern Orthodoxy, Eastern Christianity, Mormonism, Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Shinto, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Baha’i, Coptic Christianity, Mormonism, Seventh-Day Adventist, Society of Friend (Quakers), Christian Science, Moravians, and the Unitarians.
(4) Other religions, including the Shakers, Anabaptists (Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites), Rosicrucians, Gnostics, Unification Church, Hare Krishna, Brethren, Japanese new religions, and Scientology.
(5) Religious sects and cults, including mystical orders of the Middle Ages, spiritual groups of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, New Thought and New Age groups, witchcraft, astrology, apocalyptic and millenarian groups, and the personal growth movement.
(6) Religious tolerance and intolerance, including ecumenicism, missionary activity, relations among denominations and sects within a religion, relations between and among different religions and relations between the church and state. One major theme in the history of religion is both intolerance and tolerance by governments of religion or specific religions; therefore, the relationship between religion and the state is afforded much attention here.
(7) Special topics, including Native American religion, African-American religion, atheism, creationism, missionary activity, televangelism, the role of women in religion, and ecumenicism.
As much as possible we have tried to make coverage of each religion parallel while also including information about unique features of each religion. For each religion covered in the chronology we provide information on the following: origin; development and refinement of major beliefs and practices; origin and revision of major texts; major founding individuals, leaders, and reformers; designation of important places; tolerance or intolerance by others; major denominations or sects; and geographical spread.
Structure
The heart of the volume is the chronology itself. It is supplemented by about 250 information sidebars which describe all of the major and minor religions covered in the chronology, provide biographical sketches of major religious figures, define and frame major issues or events, and in general provide context to the information provided in the chronology. The volume also includes a bibliography and an index.
To aid readers in working through the chronology, nineteen subject codes are used to indicate the topic or topics covered in each entry. Other religions and topics, as well as specific topics within these general categories, are listed in the index. In addition, cross-references are included in the entries to direct users to other relevant entries.
african African and African-American Religions
budd Buddhism
cath Roman Catholicism
chris Christianity, general
civil Religion in prehistoric times and in ancient civilizations
conf Confucianism
dao Daoism
evan Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity
hind Hinduism
jain Jainism
jud Judaism
islam Islam
misc General information about religion in general
nativ Native American religions
ortho Eastern Orthodoxy
prot Protestantism
sect Other religions, sects, and cults
shinto Shinto
tol Religious tolerance and intolerance
A number of special decisions were made about how to best handle and present the information in the chronology. Perhaps the most difficult issue was how to present information that is dated at one point in time by adherents of a religion and at a different point in time by such experts as archaeologists or historians. In many religions it is not unusual for followers of the religion to date early events at earlier dates than do scholars. When there is a conflict in dates of this type, we have indicated that the date is one supported by religious belief by saying that it is the "traditional" date and that it is one supported by experts by saying it is the date assigned by "experts." Readers are free to choose whichever date, or both, as they prefer. Our goal is to be respectful of all religious beliefs while at the same time providing an accurate statement of the historical record.
A second issue that required special consideration was how to direct readers to entries that specifically relate to other entries that may be years or even centuries apart in the chronology. Of course, the index and the nineteen subject codes help, but for some entries we have also added cross-references or references in the text to the year where related information may be found.
The other decisions were more technical. They include the following:
(1) presenting all events in the present tense with events that take place later presented in the future tense or with information about when they occur;
(2) presenting all b.c.e. dates with a preceding – (minus) sign;
(3) not using c. (circa) with b.c.e. dates; as many b.c.e. dates are not exact, it is to be understood that sources often differ in the dates listed for these events;
(4) using c. (circa) to indicate that the date is approximate in the c.e. section of the chronology;
(5) using parentheses, as in (St.) Peter, to indicate that sainthood has been conferred on an individual at some later point in time.
Acknowledgments
A number of people not listed as contributors deserve mention and special thanks for their help with this work. First, I want to thank Michael Schulze, vice president and director of General Reference at H.W. Wilson, for his support of the idea and bringing the concept to a project with a minimum of fuss. I also want to thank the editorial staff at H.W. Wilson, including Gray Young, Lynn Messina, and Jacquelene Latif, as well as Hilary Claggett for supplying useful tips about reliable sources of information related to religion as the project progressed.
(1) Religion in the prehistoric world; that is, religions about which we know through the study of the archaeological record. Coverage of these is slight compared to coverage of religion in the historic period, as information is limited by the absence of written records and the need to base interpretations on a less than full archaeological record.
(2) Religion in the ancient world, with an emphasis on the religions of major civilizations in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Africa, India, Greece, Rome, and the Americas. Information about these religions comes from both the archaeological and often written records.
(3) Major world religions; religions whose followers are widely distributed throughout the world and/or religions that have influenced other religions in significant ways. The world religions covered here are Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism (Baptist, Churches of God, Episcopalian, Anglican, Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity, Pentecostal, Lutheran, Methodist, Congregational, Presbyterian, and the Salvation Army), Eastern Orthodoxy, Eastern Christianity, Mormonism, Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Shinto, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Baha’i, Coptic Christianity, Mormonism, Seventh-Day Adventist, Society of Friend (Quakers), Christian Science, Moravians, and the Unitarians.
(4) Other religions, including the Shakers, Anabaptists (Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites), Rosicrucians, Gnostics, Unification Church, Hare Krishna, Brethren, Japanese new religions, and Scientology.
(5) Religious sects and cults, including mystical orders of the Middle Ages, spiritual groups of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, New Thought and New Age groups, witchcraft, astrology, apocalyptic and millenarian groups, and the personal growth movement.
(6) Religious tolerance and intolerance, including ecumenicism, missionary activity, relations among denominations and sects within a religion, relations between and among different religions and relations between the church and state. One major theme in the history of religion is both intolerance and tolerance by governments of religion or specific religions; therefore, the relationship between religion and the state is afforded much attention here.
(7) Special topics, including Native American religion, African-American religion, atheism, creationism, missionary activity, televangelism, the role of women in religion, and ecumenicism.
As much as possible we have tried to make coverage of each religion parallel while also including information about unique features of each religion. For each religion covered in the chronology we provide information on the following: origin; development and refinement of major beliefs and practices; origin and revision of major texts; major founding individuals, leaders, and reformers; designation of important places; tolerance or intolerance by others; major denominations or sects; and geographical spread.
Structure
The heart of the volume is the chronology itself. It is supplemented by about 250 information sidebars which describe all of the major and minor religions covered in the chronology, provide biographical sketches of major religious figures, define and frame major issues or events, and in general provide context to the information provided in the chronology. The volume also includes a bibliography and an index.
To aid readers in working through the chronology, nineteen subject codes are used to indicate the topic or topics covered in each entry. Other religions and topics, as well as specific topics within these general categories, are listed in the index. In addition, cross-references are included in the entries to direct users to other relevant entries.
african African and African-American Religions
budd Buddhism
cath Roman Catholicism
chris Christianity, general
civil Religion in prehistoric times and in ancient civilizations
conf Confucianism
dao Daoism
evan Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity
hind Hinduism
jain Jainism
jud Judaism
islam Islam
misc General information about religion in general
nativ Native American religions
ortho Eastern Orthodoxy
prot Protestantism
sect Other religions, sects, and cults
shinto Shinto
tol Religious tolerance and intolerance
A number of special decisions were made about how to best handle and present the information in the chronology. Perhaps the most difficult issue was how to present information that is dated at one point in time by adherents of a religion and at a different point in time by such experts as archaeologists or historians. In many religions it is not unusual for followers of the religion to date early events at earlier dates than do scholars. When there is a conflict in dates of this type, we have indicated that the date is one supported by religious belief by saying that it is the "traditional" date and that it is one supported by experts by saying it is the date assigned by "experts." Readers are free to choose whichever date, or both, as they prefer. Our goal is to be respectful of all religious beliefs while at the same time providing an accurate statement of the historical record.
A second issue that required special consideration was how to direct readers to entries that specifically relate to other entries that may be years or even centuries apart in the chronology. Of course, the index and the nineteen subject codes help, but for some entries we have also added cross-references or references in the text to the year where related information may be found.
The other decisions were more technical. They include the following:
(1) presenting all events in the present tense with events that take place later presented in the future tense or with information about when they occur;
(2) presenting all b.c.e. dates with a preceding – (minus) sign;
(3) not using c. (circa) with b.c.e. dates; as many b.c.e. dates are not exact, it is to be understood that sources often differ in the dates listed for these events;
(4) using c. (circa) to indicate that the date is approximate in the c.e. section of the chronology;
(5) using parentheses, as in (St.) Peter, to indicate that sainthood has been conferred on an individual at some later point in time.
Acknowledgments
A number of people not listed as contributors deserve mention and special thanks for their help with this work. First, I want to thank Michael Schulze, vice president and director of General Reference at H.W. Wilson, for his support of the idea and bringing the concept to a project with a minimum of fuss. I also want to thank the editorial staff at H.W. Wilson, including Gray Young, Lynn Messina, and Jacquelene Latif, as well as Hilary Claggett for supplying useful tips about reliable sources of information related to religion as the project progressed.
Om Bhurbhuvah Swah,
Tatsaviturvarenyams; Bhargo Devasya Dheemahi, Dhiyo Yo Nah Prachodayat.
(Yajurved 36-3)
Every holy hymn of the Veda is called "the mantra", and every
mantra of the Veda is filled with the deep meaning for that one has to
think. Mantra means "thinkable subject".
"O GOD! You are the life and support of the whole world,
self-existent and dearer than life itself, you are free from all
suffering and your contact frees others from all suffering. You pervade
this multiform universe and all power proceeds from you. Creator of all
that exists in this phenomenal world, you are most luminous, pure and
adorable. We meditate on you. May you inspire and guide our intellect on
the right path.
The repetition of the Gayatri mantra, with its proper meaning,
improves the intellect and with refined intellect one can understand and
acquire the subjects of knowledge and science i.e. wisdom easily.
Above-written mantra of the Veda is called "the Gayatri Mantra",
in which the devotee prays to GOD for thesharp discriminative intellect
(Sad-Buddhi). It is a prayer for wisdom, by which one can acquire true
knowledge, from which everything is achieved in the life.
Each and every mantra of the Vedas is holy and the best. As
every limb and organ of the body is precious, but Prana (nervauric
force) is the most precious of all, because the body is useless without
the nervauric force. In the same way the Gayatri mantra is the Prana
(Vital force) of the Vedas. The Veda is understood only with pure
intellect and without intellect there is no use of the Vedas. The
Gayatri mantra is complete mantra of glorification-prayer-communion of
GOD.
Tatsaviturvarenyams; Bhargo Devasya Dheemahi, Dhiyo Yo Nah Prachodayat.
(Yajurved 36-3)
Every holy hymn of the Veda is called "the mantra", and every
mantra of the Veda is filled with the deep meaning for that one has to
think. Mantra means "thinkable subject".
"O GOD! You are the life and support of the whole world,
self-existent and dearer than life itself, you are free from all
suffering and your contact frees others from all suffering. You pervade
this multiform universe and all power proceeds from you. Creator of all
that exists in this phenomenal world, you are most luminous, pure and
adorable. We meditate on you. May you inspire and guide our intellect on
the right path.
The repetition of the Gayatri mantra, with its proper meaning,
improves the intellect and with refined intellect one can understand and
acquire the subjects of knowledge and science i.e. wisdom easily.
Above-written mantra of the Veda is called "the Gayatri Mantra",
in which the devotee prays to GOD for thesharp discriminative intellect
(Sad-Buddhi). It is a prayer for wisdom, by which one can acquire true
knowledge, from which everything is achieved in the life.
Each and every mantra of the Vedas is holy and the best. As
every limb and organ of the body is precious, but Prana (nervauric
force) is the most precious of all, because the body is useless without
the nervauric force. In the same way the Gayatri mantra is the Prana
(Vital force) of the Vedas. The Veda is understood only with pure
intellect and without intellect there is no use of the Vedas. The
Gayatri mantra is complete mantra of glorification-prayer-communion of
GOD.
Alcohol, non-vegetarianism and aggression are some of the basic traits associated to a person from the army. God, devotion and spirituality, are certain aspects that generally come into the picture for them at times of war. So, for one coming from a military background, a vocation such as spiritual discourse as the reason for existence seems quite out of place. But, Poonjaji was one such man.
Early awakening
Hari Wansh Lal Poonja was born on October 13, 1910 in a town called Gujranwala, in undivided Punjab (now part of Pakistan). Born into an upper class Brahmin (the priests) family, Poonjaji showed a spiritual inclination at a very early age.
As a child he would insist on accompanying his father whenever he would go to meet visiting priests. In children's games of fancy dress, while the other kids dressed as thieves, cops or other such people, young Hari would dress up as a Buddhist monk.
One fine summer afternoon, when Poonjaji was just eight years, his senses spontaneously withdrew. This state of samadhi lasted for several days, while his family fervently tried to revive him. After a few days Poonjaji finally came to the state of normal consciousness and later recounted that he felt he was bathed in a feeling of profound peace and nothingness during the samadhi.
This was a turning point in his life and from that point onwards each day he spent a few hours in meditation and singing bhajans (holy songs) in praise of Lord Krishna with his mother as she too was a Krishna devotee.
At 20 he was married off to a Brahmin girl and the couple bore two children Surendra and Surendri. As a family man, Poonjaji had to earn for the upkeep of his family. He tried his hands at different activities and finally joined the British Army in the early 1940s.
Meeting Ramana Maharishi
While on leave at his parents house in Lahore, Poonjaji met a sadhu (wandering priest) in 1943. He welcomed the sadhu to his house and inquired of him whether there was any spiritual teacher anywhere in India who could make him see God. The sadhu directed him to a small town in South India called Thiruvannamalai, in present day Tamil Nadu.
Coincidently, Poonjaji was transferred to Madras, present day Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu, where his wife and children accompanied him. After reaching Madras, Poonjaji made his way to Thiruvannamalai and reached the ashram of Ramana Maharishi located at Arunachala Hill.
He was shocked to see the same sadhu sitting in the ashram as Ramana Maharishi and more so when he was told that the latter hadn't left his ashram for over 40 years.
Poonjaji then decided to chant japa (hymns to the Gods) on the other side of Arunachala Hill from where Ramana Maharishi lived.
For four years Poonjaji would visit the ashram, working on weekdays in Madras and then returning to the ashram during weekends. With his interaction with Ramana Maharishi, Poonjaji realized the unchanging nature of the Self, and he was thus awakened.
Partition
Along with news of India's independence in 1947, came the shock of the partition of the sub-continent into Pakistan and India. On Ramana Maharishi's behest, Poonjaji left for his hometown to get his family members to safety in India. In the wake of the partition had come communal riots between the Hindus and Muslims, which left over a million dead and many more displaced. This was the last time Poonjaji was to see his guru in his physical form, who passed away in 1950.
Poonjaji along with 40 of his relatives managed to come back to India and settled in the town of Lucknow, in present-day Uttar Pradesh (about eight hours train ride south east of New Delhi). He settled there with his family in the Nahri district, near the town center. He was their only breadwinner for several years.
In Lucknow, Poonjaji became an insurance underwriter and then in 1951 joined an American mining company, which took him deep into the forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and other states in South India. He retired from this job in the 1960s at the age of 56.
Metamorphosis into a spiritual guru
Soon, people who would come in contact with Poonjaji would turn to him for spiritual advice and succor. Once he retired he began to make several pilgrimages to the holy towns of Haridwar and Rishikesh.
He became somewhat of a roving monk, who would not stay in one place for a long time. However, his fame as a spiritual guide continued to spread far and wide and many looked at him for guidance and instruction.
He began traveling overseas at the behest of his followers and visited several western countries like Spain, South America, North America, Canada, France, Switzerland. However, he never let any formal organization take shape on his name nor let too many people surround him at any given point in time. He used to say, "Where there is more than a handful of people gathered, you can be sure that the purity has been lost."
Health problems
In his late seventies, Poonjaji's health began to deteriorate. Due to pain in his legs he became immobile to some extent and began residing in Lucknow for a larger duration. In the 1980s many well-known Western meditation teachers came in contact with him including teachers from the Insight Meditation Society founded by Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, and others.
In 1991, after the demise of Rajneesh, founder of the Osho ashram in Pune, a larger number of Westerners began thronging his house in Lucknow. Unable to conduct satsangs from his residence anymore, due to the huge number of devotees, the following year a Satsang hall was built in the same area of Lucknow close to his house.
Till the time of his demise in 1997, several thousands of people came to him and he was able to help them realize the divine within themselves. Meetings with Poonjaji helped the people realize their true nature as infinite, unborn and undying, the Source of all Wisdom, Love and Peace.
His Teachings
Poonjaji fully committed his life to the recognition of freedom and peace. He believed that the answers to all questions lay within the human's soul and true fulfillment was in realizing the divinity within oneself, for that is where God is.
He was looked upon by his followers as a father, which is why he was affectionately addressed as "Papaji".
He was ever open to anyone who would come looking for him. He welcomed everyone with an open invitation to come inside his house and talk to him. He made each and every disciple of his feel precious, although when he was once questioned by a follower as to who his favorite was, he replied that no one was more favorite than another.
Poonjaji encouraged his followers to ask questions about Truth, Peace, Love and God to themselves, for he believed that within oneself lay the secrets of the world.
He believed that within ourselves was what we were seeking from the outside world, be it God, Truth or Happiness. And once we reconcile ourselves to this truth there would be an end to all strife.
His final words
At his deathbed, surrounded by several disciples, Poonjaji asked "Where is the Buddha?" Initially, his followers thought that he wanted a picture of his guru Ramana Maharishi. But, soon they realized that their guru was giving them his final teaching that the Buddha, who signifies, Truth, Love, Peace, Happiness, God and Life, lies within oneself. Each being houses a Buddha within oneself. His devotees stood silent around him and when he realized that his message was understood, he said "bring him in, bring him in." And these were the last words that this teacher ever spoke.
Poonjaji's health continued to deteriorate during this period and he finally passed away on September 6, 1997, just short of his 87th birthday.
Preaching Poonjaji's message
Poonjaji's teachings, which kindle the spirit of awakening, are now taught by some of his followers like Gangaji, Neelam, Issac Shapiro, Hanuman, Catherine Ingram, Yudishtara and Arjuna.
Early awakening
Hari Wansh Lal Poonja was born on October 13, 1910 in a town called Gujranwala, in undivided Punjab (now part of Pakistan). Born into an upper class Brahmin (the priests) family, Poonjaji showed a spiritual inclination at a very early age.
As a child he would insist on accompanying his father whenever he would go to meet visiting priests. In children's games of fancy dress, while the other kids dressed as thieves, cops or other such people, young Hari would dress up as a Buddhist monk.
One fine summer afternoon, when Poonjaji was just eight years, his senses spontaneously withdrew. This state of samadhi lasted for several days, while his family fervently tried to revive him. After a few days Poonjaji finally came to the state of normal consciousness and later recounted that he felt he was bathed in a feeling of profound peace and nothingness during the samadhi.
This was a turning point in his life and from that point onwards each day he spent a few hours in meditation and singing bhajans (holy songs) in praise of Lord Krishna with his mother as she too was a Krishna devotee.
At 20 he was married off to a Brahmin girl and the couple bore two children Surendra and Surendri. As a family man, Poonjaji had to earn for the upkeep of his family. He tried his hands at different activities and finally joined the British Army in the early 1940s.
Meeting Ramana Maharishi
While on leave at his parents house in Lahore, Poonjaji met a sadhu (wandering priest) in 1943. He welcomed the sadhu to his house and inquired of him whether there was any spiritual teacher anywhere in India who could make him see God. The sadhu directed him to a small town in South India called Thiruvannamalai, in present day Tamil Nadu.
Coincidently, Poonjaji was transferred to Madras, present day Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu, where his wife and children accompanied him. After reaching Madras, Poonjaji made his way to Thiruvannamalai and reached the ashram of Ramana Maharishi located at Arunachala Hill.
He was shocked to see the same sadhu sitting in the ashram as Ramana Maharishi and more so when he was told that the latter hadn't left his ashram for over 40 years.
Poonjaji then decided to chant japa (hymns to the Gods) on the other side of Arunachala Hill from where Ramana Maharishi lived.
For four years Poonjaji would visit the ashram, working on weekdays in Madras and then returning to the ashram during weekends. With his interaction with Ramana Maharishi, Poonjaji realized the unchanging nature of the Self, and he was thus awakened.
Partition
Along with news of India's independence in 1947, came the shock of the partition of the sub-continent into Pakistan and India. On Ramana Maharishi's behest, Poonjaji left for his hometown to get his family members to safety in India. In the wake of the partition had come communal riots between the Hindus and Muslims, which left over a million dead and many more displaced. This was the last time Poonjaji was to see his guru in his physical form, who passed away in 1950.
Poonjaji along with 40 of his relatives managed to come back to India and settled in the town of Lucknow, in present-day Uttar Pradesh (about eight hours train ride south east of New Delhi). He settled there with his family in the Nahri district, near the town center. He was their only breadwinner for several years.
In Lucknow, Poonjaji became an insurance underwriter and then in 1951 joined an American mining company, which took him deep into the forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and other states in South India. He retired from this job in the 1960s at the age of 56.
Metamorphosis into a spiritual guru
Soon, people who would come in contact with Poonjaji would turn to him for spiritual advice and succor. Once he retired he began to make several pilgrimages to the holy towns of Haridwar and Rishikesh.
He became somewhat of a roving monk, who would not stay in one place for a long time. However, his fame as a spiritual guide continued to spread far and wide and many looked at him for guidance and instruction.
He began traveling overseas at the behest of his followers and visited several western countries like Spain, South America, North America, Canada, France, Switzerland. However, he never let any formal organization take shape on his name nor let too many people surround him at any given point in time. He used to say, "Where there is more than a handful of people gathered, you can be sure that the purity has been lost."
Health problems
In his late seventies, Poonjaji's health began to deteriorate. Due to pain in his legs he became immobile to some extent and began residing in Lucknow for a larger duration. In the 1980s many well-known Western meditation teachers came in contact with him including teachers from the Insight Meditation Society founded by Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, and others.
In 1991, after the demise of Rajneesh, founder of the Osho ashram in Pune, a larger number of Westerners began thronging his house in Lucknow. Unable to conduct satsangs from his residence anymore, due to the huge number of devotees, the following year a Satsang hall was built in the same area of Lucknow close to his house.
Till the time of his demise in 1997, several thousands of people came to him and he was able to help them realize the divine within themselves. Meetings with Poonjaji helped the people realize their true nature as infinite, unborn and undying, the Source of all Wisdom, Love and Peace.
His Teachings
Poonjaji fully committed his life to the recognition of freedom and peace. He believed that the answers to all questions lay within the human's soul and true fulfillment was in realizing the divinity within oneself, for that is where God is.
He was looked upon by his followers as a father, which is why he was affectionately addressed as "Papaji".
He was ever open to anyone who would come looking for him. He welcomed everyone with an open invitation to come inside his house and talk to him. He made each and every disciple of his feel precious, although when he was once questioned by a follower as to who his favorite was, he replied that no one was more favorite than another.
Poonjaji encouraged his followers to ask questions about Truth, Peace, Love and God to themselves, for he believed that within oneself lay the secrets of the world.
He believed that within ourselves was what we were seeking from the outside world, be it God, Truth or Happiness. And once we reconcile ourselves to this truth there would be an end to all strife.
His final words
At his deathbed, surrounded by several disciples, Poonjaji asked "Where is the Buddha?" Initially, his followers thought that he wanted a picture of his guru Ramana Maharishi. But, soon they realized that their guru was giving them his final teaching that the Buddha, who signifies, Truth, Love, Peace, Happiness, God and Life, lies within oneself. Each being houses a Buddha within oneself. His devotees stood silent around him and when he realized that his message was understood, he said "bring him in, bring him in." And these were the last words that this teacher ever spoke.
Poonjaji's health continued to deteriorate during this period and he finally passed away on September 6, 1997, just short of his 87th birthday.
Preaching Poonjaji's message
Poonjaji's teachings, which kindle the spirit of awakening, are now taught by some of his followers like Gangaji, Neelam, Issac Shapiro, Hanuman, Catherine Ingram, Yudishtara and Arjuna.
